Climate Injustice and Syrian Refugee Vulnerability: A Comprehensive Analysis of Environmental Challenges in Lebanon and Jordan

Nora Alghafari, Gauri Singhal

Abstract

This research examines the intersection of climate change, environmental degradation, and refugee vulnerability among Syrian displaced populations in Lebanon and Jordan. The study reveals how environmental challenges compound the marginalization of Syrian refugees, creating layers of climate injustice that affect their access to basic services, health outcomes, educational opportunities, and economic stability. Through analysis of conditions in refugee camps and informal settlements, this research demonstrates how structural exclusion and weak governance frameworks perpetuate environmental inequities for displaced populations. Drawing on peerreviewed sources and authoritative organizations including UNHCR, UNFPA, WHO, UNICEF, and the World Bank, this comprehensive analysis provides evidence-based policy recommendations for addressing climate-refugee vulnerabilities in the Middle East.

1. Introduction

1.1 The Syrian Crisis Context

The Syrian crisis is considered one of the greatest tragedies of the modern era, as it resulted in killing, destruction, displacement, and refuge. Syrian land became a home for terrorism and extremism, as well as an arena for regional and international conflict. The Syrian crisis began in 2011, sparked by demonstrations that started in the city of Daraa in protest against living conditions. The ruling regime at the time did not handle the protesters well; resorting to violence signaled the spread of demonstrations to most Syrian cities, and the demands shifted to overthrowing the regime, coinciding with the beginning of the Arab Spring that had started in Tunisia and moved to Egypt, Libya, and Yemen.

This displacement crisis has resulted in millions of Syrians seeking refuge in neighboring countries, with Lebanon and Jordan hosting significant populations under challenging circumstances that intersect with environmental and climate vulnerabilities. The protracted nature of this displacement has created complex challenges that extend far beyond immediate humanitarian needs, encompassing long-term environmental, economic, and social impacts that affect both refugee and host communities.

1.2 Scope and Framework

This research examines how climate change and environmental degradation create additional layers of vulnerability for Syrian refugees, particularly through the lens of climate injustice. Climate injustice frameworks recognize that those least responsible for climate change often face its most severe consequences, while lacking the political representation and institutional support needed to advocate for safer, more sustainable living conditions. This study employs a comparative analysis approach, examining refugee experiences across both Lebanon and Jordan to identify common patterns and context-specific vulnerabilities.

2. Environmental Context and Challenges

2.1 Lebanese Environmental Context

Lebanon is highly portrayed as the country of environmental dilemmas and pollution, where environmental issues are extremely linked by the social and political spheres. Unfortunately the social life is greatly affected by the sectarian system, and also the political framework is notorious for mismanagement and exacerbating issues instead of solving them. Consequently, there are lots of environmental mobilizations, campaigns, and protests against the political power that usually announce projects which will threaten the social, environmental, and financial life of Lebanese people.

Actually, Lebanese people are jeopardized from the intensive amount of pollution, for this reason the World Health Organization and the Global Cancer Observatory, Lebanon has by far the highest rate of cancer in the Arab world and one of the highest in the Eastern Mediterranean[1]. This severe environmental context creates a particularly challenging backdrop for refugee protection, as Syrian refugees are forced into the most environmentally degraded areas where they face compounded health risks and limited access to environmental remediation efforts.

2.2 Jordanian Environmental Context

Jordan is a predominantly arid country facing significant environmental challenges, including water scarcity, desertification, pollution, and loss of biodiversity. These issues are intensified by rapid population growth, urbanization, and the influx of refugees, placing enormous pressure on the country's limited natural resources.

Socially, Jordanians are increasingly aware and concerned about environmental problems such as air and water pollution and inadequate waste management, which directly affect their health and quality of life. Politically, while Jordan has established environmental laws and strategies aimed at sustainable resource management, the effectiveness of these policies is often hindered by limited resources and competing priorities like economic development. The additional strain of hosting over 1.3 million registered Syrian refugees has intensified existing environmental pressures and created new challenges for sustainable resource management.

3. Climate Injustice and Refugee Vulnerability

3.1 Climate Injustice in Lebanon

In Lebanon, Syrian refugees occupy some of the most marginalized positions within society, excluded from environmental planning and climate resilience strategies. Marginalization drives refugees into substandard, exposed shelters in camps, where they are disproportionately exposed to pollution and health risks from open waste burning and contaminated water. Their settlements are frequently located in degraded and unsafe environments, leaving them exposed to both the effects of environmental neglect and the broader impacts of climate change[2].

3.1.1 Waste Management Crisis and Environmental Marginalization

This marginalization is further reflected in how national environmental problems, such as waste mismanagement, disproportionately impact refugee communities. The country's nationwide waste management crisis, already a major environmental challenge, is felt most acutely in refugee camps and impoverished urban neighborhoods. In these areas, inadequate waste collection allows trash to accumulate in open spaces, where it rots or is burned in the open air, releasing toxic fumes and attracting pests. Such conditions not only harm the environment but also directly threaten the health of residents who have little means to protect themselves[3].

3.1.2 Seasonal Environmental Hazards and Weather Vulnerability

Beyond waste-related threats, refugees also endure severe risks from changing weather patterns throughout the year. Refugees are exposed to significant environmental hazards throughout the year as a result of extreme weather conditions. During winter, severe cold, storms, and heavy rainfall often damage shelters, increase the risk of hypothermia, and contribute to the spread of weather-related illnesses. In summer, refugees face prolonged periods of high temperatures, intense sunlight, and frequent heatwaves, all of which pose serious threats to health and well-being, particularly in inadequately equipped camps[4].

3.1.3 Fire Hazards and Unsafe Coping Mechanisms

These seasonal challenges are compounded by fire hazards arising from unsafe coping mechanisms. In many refugee camps, most fires originate from the urgent need to cook food or to generate heat for warmth. Due to the absence of safe heating and cooking facilities, refugees often resort to constructing makeshift stoves by burning wood in open-air settings. When strong winds occur, these fires can quickly spread, especially because camp shelters are frequently made from highly flammable materials such as plastic and nylon. This combination of factors causes fires to escalate rapidly, posing severe risks to life and property. In response, refugees attempt to devise solutions within their limited means; however, the lack of safe and sustainable alternatives often results in practices that unintentionally endanger their own safety[5].

3.1.4 Water and Sanitation Infrastructure Collapse

Fire hazards are only one aspect of the unsafe infrastructure in refugee settlements; water and sanitation conditions present another critical challenge. The inequity extends to Lebanon's collapsed sewage infrastructure. Fewer than 60% of the country's buildings are connected to sewer networks, with the remainder relying on septic tanks or resorting to dumping raw sewage directly into rivers, lakes, and coastal waters. Refugee settlements fare even worse, with many lacking any sewage systems at all. This results in severe contamination of surrounding water sources, forcing communities to depend on polluted supplies for drinking, cooking, and hygiene. Such unsafe water, combined with poor sanitation, fosters the spread of waterborne diseases and further entrenches public health crises. Many camps are plagued by chronic water shortages in summer, with unsafe wells and limited sanitation. Pollution of ground and surface water is common, as are outbreaks of waterborne diseases.

3.1.5 Environmental Resource Depletion

In addition to water contamination, resource scarcity drives other environmentally harmful practices. Refugee populations frequently rely on local trees for fuel and construction, accelerating deforestation and soil degradation. This contributes to local ecological imbalances and exacerbates future environmental hazards.

3.1.6 Structural Environmental Injustice

These environmental risks highlight a deeper structural injustice that defines refugee life in Lebanon. The environmental injustice faced by refugees is intensified by the fact that they contribute minimally to the country's overall pollution. In 2015, for example, Syrian refugees were responsible for only 15.7% of municipal solid waste-- -proportional to their share of the population---yet they disproportionately suffered the consequences of open waste burning and industrial dumping carried out by others. This paradox underscores how structural exclusion, rather than environmental behavior, dictates vulnerability. For many refugees, displacement by war has been followed by a "second exile" into zones of environmental neglect, where they lack both political representation and the ability to advocate for safer, more sustainable living conditions.

3.2 Climate Injustice in Jordan

3.2.1 Jordan's Climate Vulnerability Context

Jordan faces acute risks from climate change due to chronic water scarcity, limited arable land, and fragile public infrastructure. These environmental vulnerabilities are exacerbated by rising temperatures, increasingly erratic rainfall patterns, and a higher frequency of droughts. The country's precarious ecological balance leaves both its population and ecosystems under persistent threat, with climate stressors amplifying pre-existing socioeconomic challenges.

Syrian and Palestinian refugees represent one of the most climate-vulnerable groups within Jordan. Their exposure is heightened by entrenched poverty, overcrowded housing, and restricted access to clean water, adequate food security, and healthcare services. Women and children, in particular, are disproportionately affected due to the intersection of gendered social inequalities and environmental risks, rendering them especially vulnerable to climate-induced hardships[6][7].

3.2.2 Al Zaatari Camp: A Case Study in Water Scarcity

The Al Zaatari refugee camp---a key settlement for displaced Syrians---exemplifies the acute challenges of water scarcity in Jordan's refugee context. Water provision in the camp is severely constrained, with residents depending on limited, often irregular water deliveries that fail to meet daily needs. This scarcity not only undermines basic hygiene and health but also increases household vulnerability to climate extremes, particularly during prolonged dry periods.

Living conditions in the camp further reflect the intersection of humanitarian and environmental stressors. Many shelters lack adequate ventilation due to residents deliberately covering their windows---either from the inside or the outside---to protect privacy from passers-by. This adaptation aligns with deeply rooted cultural and religious norms, where privacy is considered a necessity and priority. However, the resulting lack of air circulation exacerbates heat stress during warmer months, intensifying the physical discomfort and health risks of climate change[8][9].

3.2.3 Drainage and Sanitation Crisis

Drainage and sanitation conditions also remain critical concerns. The camp lacks a formal sewage system, forcing residents to dig ditches or install makeshift pipes to discharge black and grey wastewater into outside pits. Over time, these household-level drainage channels have formed interconnected surface runoff networks that follow the natural slope of the ground. Such unmanaged wastewater flow exposes residents to contaminated environments, heightening the risk of waterborne diseases and compounding public health vulnerabilities in already fragile living conditions.

3.2.4 Resource Strain from Population Pressure

The rapid population increase driven by refugee arrivals has placed severe strain on Jordan's scarce natural resources. Water reserves, agricultural land, and energy supplies are increasingly overburdened, accelerating environmental degradation. This intensifying competition over resources has also deepened social tensions between refugee and host communities, underscoring the delicate balance between humanitarian needs and environmental sustainability.

3.2.5 Political Risks from Environmental Stress

Climate-induced environmental stress has implications beyond physical resources, threatening Jordan's sociopolitical stability. Worsening drought conditions and declining resource availability risk undermining public health, eroding livelihoods, and heightening grievances within an already sensitive socio-political environment. Such instability has the potential to compound existing governance challenges and fuel unrest.

3.2.6 Refugee Exclusion in Climate Policy

Despite Jordan's acknowledgment of vulnerable populations in its national climate strategies, refugees remain insufficiently addressed in the implementation phase. Their exclusion from climate resilience and adaptation programs perpetuates a cycle of vulnerability, denying them access to the resources and opportunities needed to mitigate environmental risks. This policy gap represents a significant dimension of climate injustice, wherein those least responsible for climate change face its most severe consequences without adequate institutional support.

3.2.7 Weak Governance and Structural Barriers

Compounding these challenges is the weakness of Jordan's climate governance framework. Institutional capacity remains limited, and mechanisms for effective coordination and stakeholder inclusion are insufficient to address the complex nexus between climate change and refugee vulnerability. These structural barriers constrain the country's ability to integrate humanitarian needs into climate policy, undermining efforts to build resilience across all affected populations.

In sum, Jordan's experience illustrates how climate change can act as a multiplier of vulnerability for displaced populations, intensifying pre-existing socio-economic and political pressures. The conditions in Al Zaatari camp-- -marked by water scarcity, inadequate shelter ventilation, and unsafe drainage systems---serve as a tangible manifestation of this injustice, demonstrating how environmental degradation, resource scarcity, refugee marginalization, and weak governance converge to perpetuate climate-related inequities.

3.3 Government and Policy Integration Issues

The intersection of climate change and forced migration has emerged as a critical policy challenge requiring coordinated governmental responses. However, current policy frameworks in both Lebanon and Jordan demonstrate significant gaps in integrating climate considerations with refugee protection mechanisms.

3.3.1 Policy Fragmentation and Institutional Coordination

Research by the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace (2024) reveals that Jordan's climate governance framework suffers from weak institutional capacity and limited mechanisms for effective coordination between humanitarian and environmental agencies[10]. This fragmentation is particularly pronounced in refugee-hosting communities, where climate adaptation strategies fail to account for the specific vulnerabilities of displaced populations.

The Jordanian government's launch of the Climate-Refugee Nexus Initiative at COP27 represented an important recognition of these interconnected challenges, yet implementation remains hampered by four main policy gaps identified in national frameworks:

1. Lack of operational coordination across sectors for early warning and disaster risk reduction

2. Insufficient climate information for forecasting extreme events affecting refugee populations

3. Inadequate technical tools to support decision-making in refugee-hosting municipalities

4. Limited community-based disaster risk reduction approaches tailored to refugee-hosting communities[11]

3.3.2 Legal Framework Inadequacies

Lebanon's position as a non-signatory to the 1951 Geneva Refugee Convention creates additional complications for climate-refugee protection. The absence of a comprehensive legal framework means that climate-displaced persons fall into legal limbo, unable to access formal protection mechanisms when environmental disasters compound their displacement vulnerabilities. This legal gap becomes particularly problematic during seasonal climate extremes, when refugees require emergency assistance but lack legal pathways to access it.

Jordan's policy evolution demonstrates both progress and limitations in addressing climate-refugee vulnerabilities. While the Jordan Compact (2016) integrated some resilience considerations, recent policy reversals—including restrictive labor laws enacted in 2023 following rising unemployment—illustrate how economic pressures can undermine climate adaptation efforts for refugee populations[12].

4. Sectoral Impacts of Climate Injustice

4.1 Educational Impacts: Comparative Analysis

4.1.1 Climate-Related Educational Barriers in Lebanon

Syrian refugees in both Lebanon and Jordan face overcrowded living conditions in camps or informal settlements that are often vulnerable to climate-related hazards such as extreme heat, flooding, and water scarcity. These environmental challenges exacerbate the difficulties refugees encounter in accessing consistent and quality education. For instance, in Lebanon, many Syrian refugee families live in informal tented settlements exposed to harsh weather that damages homes and school facilities, reduces students' school attendance, and limits safe access to educational centers. Droughts and water shortages place further strain on daily living conditions, forcing some children to prioritize household or work responsibilities over schooling.

Beyond physical vulnerabilities, climate change compounds socio-economic stressors: harsher environmental conditions worsen poverty, food insecurity, and health risks among refugee communities, leading families to rely on child labor, which reduces school enrollment and retention for many Syrian children in Lebanon. Economic hardship is a major barrier to education in both countries, as families struggle to pay for transportation, school supplies, and other indirect schooling costs.

4.1.2 Educational Challenges in Jordan: Detailed Analysis

Syrian refugee children in Jordan face multiple climate-related educational barriers that have been systematically documented through academic research. A comprehensive study by Sieverding et al. (2020) found that by 2013, when most Syrians arrived in Jordan, 40% of all registered Syrian students had already dropped out of school due to conflict-related disruptions[13]. Climate change compounds these educational challenges through several mechanisms:

Infrastructure Vulnerability: Research conducted in Northern Jordan's refugee-hosting communities reveals that extreme weather events directly impact educational infrastructure. In Irbid and Ramtha municipalities, flash flooding regularly damages school buildings, forcing temporary closures that disproportionately affect Syrian refugee children enrolled in afternoon shifts[14]. These climate-related school closures are particularly problematic because Syrian children in Jordan's double-shift system have fewer makeup options compared to their Jordanian counterparts in morning shifts.

Water Scarcity and School Access: The IWMI's AHEAD research project (2024) documents how water scarcity in Northern Jordan creates compound challenges for refugee education. Chronic water shortages force some refugee families to prioritize children's labor in water collection over school attendance, particularly affecting girls who bear primary responsibility for household water management[15].

4.1.3 Jordan's Educational Policy Response to Climate Challenges

Jordan's Ministry of Education has implemented several climate-adaptive measures, though their effectiveness remains limited by resource constraints. As documented by Human Rights Watch (2016), the ministry's creation of 50,000 new school spaces and expansion of catch-up programs represented significant efforts, yet climate resilience was not systematically integrated into these educational interventions[16].

The double-shift system, while increasing access, creates climate vulnerabilities. Syrian children attending afternoon sessions face higher exposure to extreme heat during summer months, with some schools lacking adequate ventilation or cooling systems. Teachers in these programs receive less training and fewer benefits, potentially compromising educational quality during climate-related disruptions[17].

4.1.4 Socio-Economic Compound Effects in Jordan

Research by the World Bank (2024) demonstrates how climate stress interacts with economic pressures to impact Syrian refugee education in Jordan. The study found that 80% of Syrian refugees live outside camps in urban areas, where climate-related economic disruptions more directly affect educational access[18].

Agricultural Climate Impacts: In Jordan's agricultural regions, where many Syrian refugees work seasonally, climate-related crop failures directly impact family income and children's school enrollment. Focus group research in Irbid revealed that "unemployment is a huge problem... we are experiencing changes in rainfall patterns and long periods of drought which negatively affect agricultural production," leading families to withdraw children from school for economic survival[19].

Resource Competition and Social Tensions: Climate-induced resource scarcity in Jordan has amplified tensions between refugee and host communities, with direct implications for educational access. As water reserves, agricultural land, and energy supplies become increasingly overburdened, social tensions affect school environments and community support for refugee education[20]\

4.1.5 Marginalized Groups and Educational Exclusion

Marginalized groups within refugee populations---such as girls, disabled children, and those from poorer families- --face disproportionate exclusion from education and climate-adaptive resources. In summary, climate injustice magnifies the vulnerabilities of Syrian refugee children in Lebanon and Jordan by worsening environmental risks, economic hardships, and social exclusion, all of which undermine their access to and quality of education. Addressing these intertwined issues requires holistic approaches that integrate climate adaptation with inclusive education policies and strengthened social protection mechanisms for refugees.

4.2 Health Impacts with Detailed Focus on Women

4.2.1 Women's Reproductive Health Vulnerabilities in Lebanon

Syrian refugee women in Lebanon face profound reproductive health challenges, including high rates of gynecologic conditions such as menstrual irregularity, severe pelvic pain, and vaginal infections. Many also experience pregnancy complications and adverse birth outcomes, including preterm delivery, spontaneous abortion, and low-birthweight infants[21]. These outcomes are closely linked to the intersection of displacement, economic hardship, and inadequate access to reproductive health services. Limited antenatal care, insufficient gynecological follow-up, and restricted availability of culturally acceptable services---such as female obstetrician-gynecologists---leave many women without essential preventive or treatment options[22]. Food insecurity and chronic illnesses such as anemia and hypertension further contribute to these risks, creating a compounded cycle of vulnerability[23].

Violence and Climate Displacement: Exposure to conflict-related violence intensifies these health risks. While several cases of sexual violence perpetrated by armed people in Syria were reported, there may be underreporting of sexual violence due to shame or fear of stigmatization. Over 30% of women reported experiencing violence, abuse, or sexual assault---often in addition to intimate partner violence[24]. Such experiences are strongly associated with reproductive health problems, with stress emerging as a key mediator between violence and adverse outcomes[25]. Climate-related secondary displacement within Lebanon—such as when extreme weather damages temporary shelters—increases exposure to gender-based violence as women seek new accommodation.

Mental Health and Reproductive Health Connections: Psychological distress, depression, fatigue, sleep disturbance, and migraines are common among survivors, and these mental health burdens can exacerbate reproductive health problems, leading to complications during pregnancy and childbirth[26]. The shortage of accessible, affordable, and culturally appropriate reproductive health services amplifies the severity of these conditions.

4.2.2 Women's Reproductive Health Vulnerabilities in Jordan

Syrian refugee women in Jordan face equally severe but distinct reproductive health challenges exacerbated by climate change. Research published in PMC (2023) comparing Syrian refugee women with local Jordanian women found that refugee women scored significantly higher on all mental health scales, with climate-related stressors identified as key contributing factors[27].

Healthcare Access Barriers: A systematic review by Dator et al. (2018) found that 93.5% of Syrian refugee women in Jordan lack medical insurance, creating a predictable risk factor for perceived distress and poor health outcomes during climate-related emergencies[28]. The study identified financial barriers as the greatest obstacle to healthcare access for 66% of Syrian women, a situation that worsens during climate-related economic disruptions.

Climate-Health Intersections: Syrian refugee women in Jordan experience reproductive health complications linked to climate stressors through multiple pathways:

• Heat-related complications: Extreme temperatures in refugee camps and urban settlements increase risks of pregnancy complications, with inadequate cooling systems in shelters exacerbating heat stress during summer months

• Water-related health risks: Contaminated water sources in camps like Za'atari increase risks of waterborne diseases that particularly affect pregnant and lactating women

• Food insecurity impacts: Climate-related crop failures and rising food prices contribute to malnutrition among pregnant women, increasing risks of low birth weight and maternal complications

4.2.3 Mental Health and Climate Stress

The mental health study by Atrooz et al. (2023) revealed that Syrian refugee women in Jordan exhibit significantly higher psychological distress compared to local women, with climate-related stressors playing a contributing role. The research found that both Syrian refugee and Jordanian women scored above clinical cutoffs for mental health concerns, but refugee women showed markedly higher scores on anxiety, depression, and stress measures[29].

Educational Protective Factors: Importantly, the study found that more educated women were less likely to exhibit severe mental health symptoms and showed better coping abilities. This finding has significant implications for climate adaptation, as educational opportunities may serve as protective factors against climate-related psychological distress.

4.3 Children's Vulnerabilities Across Both Countries

4.3.1 Child-Specific Climate Vulnerabilities in Jordan

Research specifically focusing on Syrian refugee children in Jordan reveals multiple climate-related vulnerability pathways that extend beyond education:

• Nutritional Impacts: The World Food Programme's 2023 cuts to food assistance-reducing monthly allocations from $32 to $21 per person-have coincided with climate-related food price increases, creating severe nutritional risks for Syrian children. UNHCR data shows that only 2% of refugee households can meet essential food needs without negative coping strategies, including pulling children from school and increased child labor [30].

• Child Labor and Climate Stress: Economic pressures created by climate-related livelihood disruptions have increased reliance on child labor among Syrian refugee families in Jordan. With 57% of camp residents reporting cash assistance as their only income source, climate-related economic shocks directly translate into increased child labor as families seek survival strategies[31].

  
  

4.3.2 Protection Concerns in Climate-Affected Settings

UNICEF research indicates that climate change creates specific protection risks for refugee children in both Lebanon and Jordan:

• Early Marriage: Climate-related economic stress increases risks of early marriage for Syrian refugee girls. Economic hardship documented in both countries leads families to view early marriage as a coping mechanism, with climate-related income losses identified as a contributing factor.

• Psychosocial Impacts: Children in refugee settings face particular psychological risks from climate-related displacement and uncertainty. Research shows that exposure to multiple stressors including initial displacement, climate-related secondary displacement, and ongoing uncertainty-creates compound trauma that affects child development and mental health [32].

4.4 Economic Crisis: Women's Focus

4.4.1 Economic Context and Women's Vulnerabilities in Lebanon

Syrian refugees in Lebanon face a severe economic crisis that deeply affects their livelihoods and ability to sustain themselves. Due to Lebanon's prolonged economic collapse, high inflation, and political instability, many refugees live in precarious conditions with limited access to stable income sources. Women bear particular burdens in this context, as economic pressures reshape household dynamics and survival strategies.

• Income Sources and Work Patterns: The majority of Syrian refugees earn income through informal daily labor, such as construction work, agriculture, street vending, and casual jobs. These jobs are typically low-wage, unstable, and lack legal protections. Increased numbers of refugee women are engaging in domestic work, sewing, or home-based crafts to supplement household income, especially as men's job opportunities shrink. Women's increased engagement in domestic work and home-based crafts makes them particularly vulnerable to climate-related economic disruptions affecting host families.

• Impact of Economic Crisis on Women: The economic downturn since 2019 has severely reduced work opportunities and increased living costs, pushing more refugees into deeper poverty and food insecurity. Testimonials from refugees illustrate the gendered impacts of the situation:

"This year has been difficult. We used to be ok, but everything changed since the increase in the dollar value." (20-35-year-old women inside the ITS, Saad Nayel) [33]

As a way to cope with the economic crisis, women reported reprioritizing their needs and giving up on desired items in order to afford essential items: "Now we deprived ourselves from many things, such as meat and vegetables. We get half of the amount we used to get. No one is able to afford everything with the increase in the prices." (Mothers and mothers-in-law outside the ITS, Saad Nayel) [34]

4.4.2 Effects on Women's Fertility Practices

The difficult living conditions and their negative effects on children have influenced women's fertility practices as some reported that they started using modern contraception methods since the crises, which was a clear indication of refugees' desire to limit their number of children or to delay having children until after the crisis[35].

"Those who used to think about having more children stopped thinking about it. We all had an IUD inserted (they all laughed)." (20-35-year-old women inside the ITS) [36]

Reports of using or being willing to use modern contraception methods were also expressed by women who belonged to the youngest age group who in normal circumstances would not use them:

"I also use pills. I started using them one month ago. My children are young and I get pregnant easily, so I decided to use them." (15-19-year-old women inside the ITS, Bar Elias) [37]

Despite their desire to limit their number of children, younger women were sometimes discouraged, by both their families and health providers, from using modern contraception methods, which caused them additional frustration given the current challenges. One woman expressed her frustration:

"I have one daughter only so they told me that I should not have an IUD inserted. I went to the doctor because I had back pain. She told me you have been pregnant for 40 days and I was able to listen to his heartbeats. I started crying." (15-19-year-old women inside the ITS, Bar Elias) [38].

4.4.3 Gendered Economic Impacts of Climate Change in Jordan

Research by the British Academy's Sustainable Development programme demonstrates how climate change creates gendered economic vulnerabilities for Syrian refugee women in Jordan that differ from but parallel those in Lebanon[39].

Labor Market Gender Dynamics: The Jordan Compact's integration of Syrian refugees into labor markets has had differentiated gender impacts. World Bank analysis (2024) shows that while work permits for Syrians increased from 45,000 in 2019 to 90,000 in 2023, women's participation remained limited by climate-related constraints. Women-owned home-based businesses increased to over 2,800 by 2023, but these enterprises face particular vulnerabilities to climate-related economic shocks[40].

Financial Inclusion and Climate Resilience: The expansion of e-wallets and basic bank accounts for refugees— from 620,000 to nearly 3 million between 2020 and 2023—included over 900,000 women. However, research shows that women's financial assets remain more vulnerable to climate-related economic disruptions, as their income sources are often more precarious and climate-sensitive[41].

4.4.4 Cross-Country Analysis: Women's Economic Vulnerability Patterns

Comparative analysis reveals both similarities and differences in how climate change affects Syrian refugee women's economic circumstances across Lebanon and Jordan:

Income Source Vulnerabilities:

In Lebanon: Women's increased engagement in domestic work and home-based crafts makes them particularly vulnerable to climate-related economic disruptions affecting host families

In Jordan: Women's concentration in agriculture and seasonal work creates direct exposure to climate-related income variability

Coping Strategy Gender Patterns: Both countries show similar patterns in women's economic coping strategies during climate-related stress:

Increased reliance on informal, precarious work

Reduced household consumption with women bearing primary responsibility for managing scarcity

Increased dependence on social networks that may be strained by climate-related community-wide stress

5. Environmental Pollution and Camp Condition

5.1 Comprehensive Analysis of Lebanese Camp Environmental Conditions

5.1.1 Bekaa Valley Conditions

The Bekaa Valley hosts a dense population of informal Syrian refugee settlements near towns like Zahle, Bar Elias, and around Arsal. Environmental conditions in these settlements present multiple health hazards:

Water Pollution: The water supply in many of these camps is often contaminated. Studies show high levels of total dissolved solids, organic pollutants, and microbial contamination due to inadequate sewage systems and waste disposal practices. Water sources are vulnerable to pollution by untreated human waste and agricultural runoff, leading to waterborne diseases.

Waste Management: Lack of formal waste collection means refugees resort to open burning of garbage, releasing harmful pollutants into the air. Open dumping in fields and near water bodies is also common.

Indoor Pollution: Refugee shelters suffer from poor ventilation, dampness, and mold growth, which exacerbate respiratory illnesses among camp residents.

Agricultural Impact: Camps located on or near farmland contribute to soil contamination due to improper waste disposal and runoff, which may affect food safety.

Agricultural Chemical Exposure: Syrian refugees in the Bekaa Valley face exposure to agricultural chemicals through multiple pathways. Camps located on or near farmland experience contamination from pesticide and fertilizer runoff, with particular risks during rainy seasons when chemicals wash into groundwater sources used by refugees.

Air Quality and Respiratory Health: Poor air quality in Lebanese refugee settlements results from multiple sources:

Open burning of waste due to lack of formal collection services

Indoor air pollution from improvised heating and cooking systems

Industrial emissions from nearby facilities, with refugee settlements often located in less desirable areas with higher pollution exposure

5.1.2 Palestinian Refugee Camps: Environmental Justice Analysis

Burj el-Barajneh Camp (Beirut): Located in southern suburbs of Beirut, the camp is surrounded by dense urban neighborhoods, with prevalent issues of open waste burning due to inadequate garbage collection. Pollution of local water sources is reported from both household waste runoff and sporadic dumping into drainage channels and rivers. Overcrowding and poor infrastructure also contribute to elevated levels of air and water pollution.

Shatila Camp (Beirut): Located in South Beirut, near the airport road, this camp experiences significant waste buildup and frequent open burning. Sewage infrastructure is deficient, leading to the contamination of soil and water. Open sewers and drains pose health hazards, and indoor air pollution from open burning and waste incineration is common.

Intergenerational Environmental Impacts: Decades of inadequate infrastructure in camps like Burj el-Barajneh and Shatila demonstrate how environmental degradation becomes entrenched over time. Poor sewage systems installed decades ago continue to create health hazards, while overcrowding has intensified environmental pressures. Comparative studies show that refugee camps in Lebanon experience significantly higher rates of respiratory illness, waterborne diseases, and vector-borne illnesses compared to surrounding Lebanese communities, illustrating how environmental injustice becomes institutionalized over time.

5.2 Comprehensive Analysis of Jordan's Camp Environmental Conditions

5.2.1 Za'atari and Azraq Camps: Detailed Environmental Assessment

Recent research by the International Water Management Institute (IWMI) and academic studies provide detailed documentation of environmental conditions in Jordan's major refugee camps:

Water Quality and Contamination: Studies show that Za'atari camp's groundwater contamination includes phosphates from detergents and sewage, with nutrient levels exceeding safe standards. Surface water contamination affects both camp residents and surrounding Jordanian communities, creating tensions over shared water resources[42]. The camp's lack of formal sewage systems results in makeshift drainage that creates health hazards during both dry periods (when waste concentrates) and wet periods (when runoff spreads contamination).

Waste Management Infrastructure: Unlike smaller camps in Lebanon, Jordan's large camps face industrial-scale waste management challenges. Za'atari, housing nearly 80,000 residents, generates waste volumes equivalent to a medium-sized city but lacks corresponding infrastructure. Open dumping and burning practices create air pollution that affects respiratory health, with particular impacts on children and pregnant women.

Indoor Air Pollution: Due to limited fuel choices and reliance on polluting energy sources for cooking and heating, indoor air quality poses health risks to refugees, including respiratory problems.

Increased Pressure on Local Ecosystems: The significant influx of refugees increases demands on energy, water, and land, resulting in environmental degradation and heightened pollution risks in areas surrounding camps.

5.2.2 Climate-Camp Environment Interactions

Research by Wardeh et al. (2023) on water and sanitation in refugee camps demonstrates how climate change exacerbates existing environmental challenges in Jordan's camps[43]:

Heat-Related Environmental Stress: Rising temperatures in Jordan's camps create multiple environmental health risks:

Increased water demand during heat waves strains already limited supplies

Higher temperatures accelerate waste decomposition, increasing disease vector breeding sites

Poor ventilation in refugee shelters, combined with extreme heat, creates dangerous indoor air quality conditions

Flash Flooding Impacts: Climate change increases risks of flash flooding in Jordan's camps, with particular impacts on informal drainage systems. Research shows that sudden rainfall overwhelms makeshift drainage channels, creating sewage backflows that contaminate living areas and water sources.

6. Government Policies and Responses

6.1 Lebanese Government Policies: Enhanced Analysis

6.1.1 Restrictive Refugee Policy Framework

Restrictive Refugee Policy: In 2014, Lebanon adopted a policy explicitly aimed at reducing the number of Syrian refugees by prohibiting new entries, pressuring returns, and imposing strict residency regulations[44].

Legal Framework Gap: Lebanon is not a signatory to the 1951 Geneva Refugee Convention, does not recognize refugee integration, and legally treats itself as a country of "transit," though it remains bound by international principles like non-refoulement[45].

6.1.2 Legal and Administrative Barriers

Residency Barriers: Syrians face high residency fees (US$200 every six months), complex procedures, and requirements like mukhtar certifications and sponsorships, making legal status nearly impossible for most[46].

Discriminatory Entry Rules: New border regulations introduced narrow entry categories (e.g., tourism, education, medical treatment), applied selectively to Syrians, and permitted only short stays, disproportionately affecting the poor[47].

6.1.3 Rights Violations and Exclusion Systems

Exclusion from Rights and Aid: Refugees must choose between legal work permits (requiring sponsorship) or humanitarian aid, with many applications arbitrarily rejected. This system pushes most Syrians into illegality, dependency, and exploitative labor conditions[48].

Mass Illegality: Around 80% of Syrian refugees lack legal residency, leaving them vulnerable to detention, restricted mobility, denial of justice, and loss of basic rights such as property ownership and formal employment. According to humanitarian organizations, an estimated 80 percent of Syrians in Lebanon lack legal residency and risk being detained for their unlawful presence in the country[49].

6.1.4 Climate-Migration Policy Integration Failures

Lebanon's restrictive refugee policies demonstrate critical failures in integrating climate considerations with migration governance. Recent policy analysis reveals several specific areas where climate vulnerabilities are systematically excluded from refugee policy frameworks:

Legal Status and Climate Vulnerability: The requirement for Syrian refugees to choose between legal work permits and humanitarian aid creates particular vulnerabilities during climate-related emergencies. Research shows that during extreme weather events, refugees without legal status cannot access emergency services, creating life-threatening situations during storms, heat waves, or flooding

Municipal-Level Policy Gaps: Lebanon's municipal authorities lack frameworks for addressing climate-refugee intersections. Local governments cannot legally provide emergency services to undocumented refugees during climate disasters, even when humanitarian need is acute.

6.1.5 Housing and Registration Restrictions

Housing Restrictions: Refugees are barred from building permanent shelters; humanitarian aid is limited to temporary maintenance. Refugees in informal settlements face exploitation by landowners, while those in urban areas experience precarious housing, high rents, and evictions without legal recourse[50].

Suspension of Registration: In May 2015, Lebanon suspended new UNHCR registrations for Syrians, leaving many unregistered and ineligible for aid. Terminology used by the state ("temporarily displaced") further denies refugee recognition[51].

These policies have deeply shaped Syrian refugees' housing, economic opportunities, legal status, and social conditions, leaving them in a state of institutionalized precarity that increases their environmental vulnerability.

6.2 Jordanian Government Policies: Advanced Analysis

6.2.1 Policy Evolution and Encampment Strategy

Syrian Refugee Crisis Response: Initially, Jordan had an open-door policy, but from 2012 onward shifted towards encampment (Zaatari, Azraq, etc.). Most Syrians (≈80%) live outside camps in urban/rural areas, straining infrastructure, jobs, and services. Border closures (e.g., Rukban camp crisis) reflected security concerns and geopolitical deadlock, leaving thousands stranded[52].

6.2.2 Development-Oriented Approach

Shift from Humanitarian to Development Response: International frameworks (3RP, JRP) integrated humanitarian aid with development goals (resilience, social cohesion). Aid flows shifted: humanitarian funding declined after 2016 while development funding increased. Jordan framed the refugee crisis as a "developmental disaster" to attract international support[53].

Jordan Response Plan Integration: The Jordan Response Plan (JRP) explicitly recognizes climate change impacts on vulnerable populations, including refugees. However, implementation analysis shows that climate considerations remain marginal in actual programming. The plan acknowledges that "prior to the Syrian crisis, the environmental situation was extremely challenged due to natural aridity and recent drought episodes," but operational responses remain inadequately integrated[54].

6.2.3 Jordan Compact and Labor Integration

Jordan Compact (2016): Agreement with EU/World Bank to integrate Syrian refugees into the labor market. Provided work permits, eased regulations, and promoted investment and trade. Allowed Syrian investors residency and business rights, benefiting both Jordan and refugees[55].

6.2.4 Challenges and Outcomes

Mixed Results: Refugee employment increased, but Jordanian unemployment also rose, leading to new restrictive labor laws in 2023. Camps remained central despite the development rhetoric, partly as a strategy to keep international attention. Overall, Jordan's refugee policy reflects a tension between humanitarian needs, domestic economic constraints, and international bargaining[56]

6.2.5 Regional and International Policy Coordination

Climate-Refugee Nexus Initiative: Jordan's launch of the global Climate-Refugee Nexus Initiative at COP27 represents significant international leadership, but domestic implementation remains limited. The initiative aims to attract international support for countries facing dual climate-refugee challenges, yet policy coordination between climate adaptation and refugee protection ministries remains weak.

Aid Architecture and Climate Finance: Jordan's experience demonstrates challenges in coordinating traditional humanitarian funding with newer climate finance mechanisms. The reduction in humanitarian aid—including WFP cuts in 2023—has not been offset by increased climate finance for refugee-hosting communities, creating funding gaps during climate-related emergencies[57][58].

Regional Context: Unlike Lebanon and Turkey, Jordan has not deported Syrians en masse, but it advocates for improved conditions in Syria and eventual repatriation[59].

Global Crises Impact: Wars in Ukraine, Sudan, and Gaza diverted aid, leaving fewer resources for Syrian refugees[60].

7. Toward Inclusive Climate Resilience

7.1 Evidence-Based Policy Recommendations

7.1.1 Institutional Framework Recommendations

Based on research by UNFPA, UNHCR, and academic institutions, several specific institutional reforms are recommended:

Cross-Sectoral Coordination Mechanisms: Research by the Carnegie Endowment recommends establishing formal coordination mechanisms between climate adaptation and refugee protection agencies. Jordan's experience suggests that effective coordination requires dedicated climate-refugee focal points within relevant ministries, as recommended by COP25 gender and climate guidelines[61].

Early Warning System Integration: IWMI's research on anticipatory action recommends that early warning systems explicitly include refugee populations in risk assessments and response protocols. Current systems often exclude refugees from evacuation planning and emergency resource allocation, creating life-threatening gaps during climate emergencies[62].

7.1.2 Legal Framework Innovations

Climate-Displacement Legal Pathways: International legal experts recommend establishing new legal categories for climate-displaced persons, potentially through expansion of existing refugee definitions or creation of complementary protection statuses. Research suggests that regional approaches—such as through the Organization of American States' Cartagena Declaration model—may offer pathways for Middle Eastern contexts[63]

Municipal Legal Empowerment: Local governments require legal authority and resources to provide emergency assistance to refugees during climate disasters, regardless of legal status. This includes emergency healthcare, temporary shelter, and water provision during extreme weather events.

7.1.3 Research and Monitoring Systems

Systematic research on environmental conditions in refugee settlements: Combined with monitoring and evaluation of climate action plans with a focus on marginalized groups, can inform evidence-based interventions.

Public awareness campaigns on environmental health and rights: Along with education and capacity-building programs enabling refugees to participate in climate resilience efforts, are essential for building broader support and capability.

7.2 Women and Vulnerable Groups: Targeted Interventions

7.2.1 Gender-Responsive Climate Adaptation

UNFPA research emphasizes that climate adaptation strategies must address the specific ways that climate change affects women and girls[64]:

Reproductive Health Service Resilience: Climate adaptation must ensure continuity of sexual and reproductive health services during climate emergencies. This includes mobile health services that can reach displaced populations, emergency contraception and maternal health supplies, and trained healthcare providers capable of responding to climate-related health emergencies[65].

Economic Empowerment for Climate Resilience: Research shows that women's economic empowerment enhances climate resilience for entire families. Recommendations include:

Climate-resilient livelihood training for women

Financial inclusion programs that account for climate risks

Support for women-led businesses in climate adaptation sectors

7.2.2 Child Protection in Climate Contexts

UNICEF research identifies several critical child protection needs in climate-affected refugee contexts[66]:

Educational Continuity: Climate adaptation must ensure educational continuity through:

Climate-resilient school infrastructure in refugee-hosting areas

Flexible educational programming that can continue during climate disruptions

Support for families to maintain children's education during climate-related economic stress

Protection from Climate-Related Exploitation: Research shows that climate-related economic stress increases risks of child labor, trafficking, and early marriage. Protection strategies must anticipate and address these risks through economic support for families and community-based protection mechanisms.

7.2.3 Community-Based Climate Adaptation

Research by multiple organizations emphasizes the importance of refugee agency in climate adaptation:

Refugee-Led Climate Initiatives: Refugees possess valuable knowledge about climate adaptation from their countries of origin and experiences of displacement. Climate adaptation programming should systematically include refugee knowledge and leadership in designing locally appropriate solutions.

Community Early Warning Systems: Refugee communities can develop their own early warning and response systems when provided with appropriate resources and training. These community-based systems are often more effective than top-down approaches because they reflect local knowledge and social networks.

7.3 Recognizing Refugee Agency

Refugees are not inherently passive victims. Structural discrimination and systemic exclusion limit their ability to respond effectively to environmental challenges. Empowering refugee communities can enhance adaptive capacity for both refugees and host populations. Many refugees attempt to devise solutions within their limited means; however, the lack of safe and sustainable alternatives often results in practices that unintentionally endanger their own safety.

Empowering refugee communities through recognition of their agency, knowledge, and capabilities can enhance adaptive capacity for both refugees and host populations. This requires moving beyond viewing refugees merely as recipients of aid to recognizing them as active stakeholders in building resilience.

8. Conclusion

Syrian refugees in Lebanon and Jordan embody the intersection of forced displacement and climate injustice. In both countries, environmental degradation and insufficient governance magnify existing inequalities, pushing refugees into cycles of vulnerability that affect every aspect of their lives—from health and education to economic opportunities and basic safety.

The evidence presented in this comprehensive analysis reveals several critical patterns that demonstrate the profound intersection of environmental degradation and refugee vulnerability:

8.1 Structural Exclusion and Environmental Marginalization

Throughout both Lebanon and Jordan, Syrian refugees are systematically excluded from environmental planning and climate resilience strategies. This exclusion manifests through restrictive policies that push refugees into the most environmentally degraded areas, where they face disproportionate exposure to pollution, contaminated water sources, and unsafe living conditions. The paradox is stark: those who contribute least to environmental problems—with Syrian refugees responsible for only 15.7% of municipal solid waste proportional to their population share—bear the heaviest burden of environmental consequences.

8.2 Compounding Vulnerabilities Across All Life Domains

The research demonstrates that environmental challenges do not exist in isolation but interact with and amplify every other aspect of refugee marginalization. From reproductive health complications exacerbated by poor living conditions to children's education disrupted by climate-related hazards, environmental injustice creates cascading effects that undermine human development across generations. Women and children emerge as particularly vulnerable within already marginalized refugee populations, facing reproductive health crises, limited access to contraception despite economic pressures to limit family size, and increased domestic responsibilities in environmentally challenging conditions.

8.3 Economic Precarity and Environmental Risk

The testimonials and data presented reveal how economic desperation forces refugees into environmentally dangerous situations. Whether through unsafe heating practices that create fire hazards, dependence on contaminated water sources, or child labor that prevents education, poverty and environmental risk create mutually reinforcing cycles of vulnerability. The economic downturn since 2019 has severely reduced work opportunities while increasing living costs, with climate-related factors amplifying these pressures through crop failures, resource scarcity, and extreme weather events.

8.4 Policy Failures and Governance Gaps

Both Lebanese and Jordanian government policies have created legal and administrative frameworks that institutionalize refugee precarity while failing to address environmental challenges. Lebanon's restrictive policies have created a situation where 80% of Syrian refugees lack legal residency, leaving them unable to access emergency services during climate disasters. Jordan's shift toward encampment has concentrated environmental risks in specific locations while policy coordination between climate adaptation and refugee protection ministries remains weak.

8.5 Gender and Intergenerational Impacts

Women face particular challenges including reproductive health complications linked to climate stressors, increased exposure to gender-based violence during climate-related displacement, and climate-related barriers to reproductive healthcare access. Children experience educational disruption, health risks from pollution, and pressure to work rather than attend school, with climate-related economic stress increasing risks of child labor and early marriage.

8.6 International Aid and Climate Finance Inadequacies

The reduction in international aid, exacerbated by global crises and shifting donor priorities, has left refugees increasingly vulnerable to environmental hazards while reducing their capacity to adapt or protect themselves. The World Food Programme's 2023 cuts to food assistance have coincided with climate-related food price increases, while traditional humanitarian funding has not been offset by increased climate finance for refugeehosting communities.

8.7 Path Forward: Climate Justice Integration

For many refugees, displacement by war has indeed been followed by a "second exile" into zones of environmental neglect, where they lack both political representation and the ability to advocate for safer, more sustainable living conditions. This represents not only a violation of human dignity but also a fundamental failure of climate justice principles.

The path forward requires recognizing that addressing climate change effectively means addressing inequality, and that protecting vulnerable populations from environmental harm is essential for building resilient societies capable of adapting to an uncertain climatic future. This demands fundamental shifts in how governments, international organizations, and civil society approach both refugee protection and climate adaptation—moving from viewing refugees as passive recipients of aid to recognizing them as active stakeholders whose knowledge, agency, and rights must be central to building climate resilience.

Climate justice frameworks must integrate displaced populations into national adaptation strategies through:

1. Inclusive policy-making that includes refugee representatives in climate decision-making processes

2. Adequate resource allocation that addresses both humanitarian needs and climate adaptation

3. Legal framework innovations that provide pathways for climate-displaced persons

4. Cross-sectoral coordination between humanitarian and environmental agencies

5. Gender-responsive interventions that address the specific ways climate change affects women and girls

6. Community-based approaches that recognize refugee agency and local knowledge

7. Long-term development strategies that move beyond emergency response to sustainable solutions

Only through such comprehensive approaches can the cycle of climate injustice experienced by Syrian refugees be broken, creating pathways toward dignity, safety, and resilience for all. The experiences documented in this research demonstrate that sustainable solutions require addressing the intersection of environmental and social justice, ensuring that the most vulnerable populations are not left behind in our collective response to the climate crisis.

References

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